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Artificial satellite

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This article is about artificial satellites. For information on natural satellites, see Natural satellites .
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In the context of space travel , a satellite is an object that has been intentionally placed in orbit. These objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Earth's moon .

On October 4, 1956, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 . Since then, about 6,900 satellites have been launched from more than 40 countries. According to a 2016 estimate, about 5,000 are still in orbit. Of these, about 1,900 are in operation, but the rest have gone through their lifetimes and become space debris . About 63% of working satellites are in low Earth orbit , 7% in Earth's middle orbit (20,000 km), 29% in Earth orbit (36,000 km) and the remaining 2% in various elliptical orbits.There are. Among the countries with the most satellites, the United States has the most with 759 satellites, followed by China with 220 satellites and Russia with 147 satellites. It is followed by India (116), Japan (72) and the United Kingdom (52). [1] International Space Station with a few large space station partially was launched and in orbit were gathered. More than a dozen space probes have been placed in orbit around other objects , including the Moon , Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , a few asteroids , [2] a comet.And has become an artificial satellite of the sun .

Artificial satellites are used for a variety of purposes. In a number of applications, artificial satellites can be used to map and map the surface of the planet and to take pictures of the planet on which the satellite was launched. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites , communications satellites , directional satellites , weather satellites and space telescopes . Orbital space stations and spacecraft are also artificial satellites.

Satellites can work on their own or as part of a larger system for a satellite organization or satellite.

The orbits of artificial satellites vary greatly according to the purpose of the satellite and these orbits are classified differently. Well-known classes (overlays) include the lower Earth orbit, the polar orbit, and the terrestrial orbit .

A launch vehicle is a rocket that puts a satellite into orbit. Typically, it moves from a launch pad to the ground. Some are launched from a submarine or a mobile marine platform towards the sea, or on top of an aircraft (launch from the aircraft into orbit).

Artificial satellites are usually semi-standalone computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems perform many functions such as power generation, heat control, telemetry, pose control, scientific instruments, communications , and so on.

History [ edit ]

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
The concept of an "artificial moon" was illustrated in a 1949 issue of Popular Science
An animated image of the orbit of a GPS satellite around the Earth.
Sputnik 1 : The first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth.
Originally made by students at Tartu University, 1U Cubsat ESTCUB-1, which tests the installation of tethers in low-altitude orbits.

The first published mathematical study of the possibility of artificial satellites was Newton 's Cannonball , which was published in Isaac Newton's Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica (18) as a thought-provoking study to explain the motion of natural satellites . The first fictional depiction of the launch of an artificial satellite into orbit is a short story by Edward Everett Hall , "The Brick Moon" (189). [3] [4] This idea is repeated in Jules Verne's Begum Ratnabhandar ( 189 ).

In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1858-1935) published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices , the first textbook on the use of rocketry for spacecraft launches. He calculated the orbital velocity required for the minimum orbit and also calculated the ability of a multistage rocket powered by a liquid propellant to achieve this velocity.

In 1926 , Herman Potonik (1892–1929) published his only book, The Problem of Space Travel - The Rocket Motor . He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for ground observations and how special space conditions could be effective in scientific experiments.

In a 1945 article in Wireless World, English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke detailed the possible use of communication satellites for mass communication . [5] He suggested that three geostationary satellites would serve the entire planet.

In May 1948, the U.S. Air Force Project RAND released the preliminary design of an experimental world-orbiting spacecraft, stating that "an artificial satellite with suitable equipment could be expected to be one of the most powerful scientific instruments of the twentieth century." [6] The United States has been considering launching satellites into orbit since 1954 under the auspices of the United States Navy's Aeronautics Bureau. Project Rand finally released the report, but considered the artificial satellite to be a tool of science, politics, and propaganda rather than a possible military weapon. [৭]

In 1946, the American theoretical astronomer Lyman Spitzer proposed an orbiting space telescope . [৮]

In February 1954, Project Rand published "Scientific Use of Artificial Satellites" by R. R. Carhart. [9] It was expanded by the potential scientific use of artificial satellites, and in June 1955 H.K. Coleman and WW. Kellogg's "Scientific Use of Artificial Satellites" was published. [10]

In the context of planning activities for the International Year of the Earth (1958–56), the White House announced on July 29, 1955 that the United States planned to launch a satellite by the spring of 1956. It came to be known as the Vanguard Project. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they would launch a satellite by the end of 1957.

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1 , launched in 1954 by the Soviet Union under the Sputnik program with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. Sputnik 1 helped detect the density of the upper atmospheric layers by measuring its orbital change and provided information on the distribution of radio-signals in the ionosphere . The unexpected announcement of the success of Sputnik 1 alarmed the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called space competition in the Cold War .

Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1955, and carried the first living astronaut , a dog named Leica , into orbit. [11]

In early 1955 , under pressure from the American Rocket Society , the National Science Foundation, and the International Geopolitical Year, the Army and Navy were working on Project Orbiter with two competitive programs. The military used the Jupiter C rocket , while the civilian / naval program used vanguard rockets to launch satellites . On January 31, 1956, Explorer 1 became the first artificial satellite in the United States. [12]

In June 1981, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the United States Space Surveillance Network compiled a list of 115 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. [13]

The early satellites were built in unique designs. With the advancement in technology, multiple satellites began to be built on a single model platform called satellite bus . The standard satellite bus nakasasampanna jiosinakronasa (jiio) communications satellite HS -333 197 was launched in.

Currently the largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station . [14]

Follow [ edit ]

Main article: Ground station
For more information see: Determining Orbit

The satellites can also be followed from the ground station and other satellites.

Space Surveillance Network [ edit ]

The United States Space Surveillance Network , a division of the United States Strategic Command since the beginning of the space age with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union in 1956.(SSN) is following objects orbiting the earth. Since then, SSN has tracked more than 26,000 objects. SSN is currently tracking more than 6,000 artificial satellites. The rest have re-entered the Earth's atmosphere and become isolated, or have remained intact during re-entry and crashed into the Earth. SSN tracks objects with a diameter of 10 centimeters or more; This includes the cost of a rocket weighing just 10 pounds, with a few tons of artificial satellites currently orbiting the Earth. About seven percent of the active satellites (i.e. ~ 560 satellites), all the rest are space debris . [15] The U.S. Strategic Command is primarily interested in active satellites, but also tracks space debris that may be mistaken for incoming missiles.

Service [ edit ]

There are three primary categories of satellite (civilian) services: [16]

Fixed satellite service [ edit ]

Static satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmissions across specific points on Earth's surface across countries and continents.

Mobile satellite services [ edit ]

Main article: Mobile satellite service

In addition to serving as a navigation system, mobile satellite systems help connect remote areas, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world or to other mobile or stationary communications units.

Scientific Research Satellite (commercial and noncommercial) [ edit ]

Scientific research satellites provide information on weather data, land survey data (e.g. remote sensing), amateur (HAM) radio, and other scientific research applications such as geology, marine science, and atmospheric research.

Type [ edit ]

Hubble Space Telescope
International Space Station

Orbit [ edit ]

Main article: List of orbits
Different orbits according to size; The blue-green part indicates low-altitude orbit, the yellow indicates medium-altitude orbit, the black dash line represents geostationary orbit, the green dash line represents the orbit of the Universal Positioning System (GPS) satellite, and the red dotted line represents the International Space Station (IS). Orbit.

The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was placed in a geocentric orbit around the Earth . This is by far the most widely used type of orbit, with about 2,7 active satellites orbiting the Earth. [19] Geocentric orbits can be classified by their height, inclination, and eccentricity .

The most commonly used altitudes of geostationary orbits are low altitude orbits (LEOs), medium altitude orbits (MEOs) and high altitude orbits (HEOs). Low-altitude orbits are any orbits below 2,000 km . Medium-altitude orbits are any orbit between 2,000 and 35.6 kilometers. Any orbit longer than 35.6 km is the highest orbit.

Based classification [ edit ]

Elevation classification [ edit ]

The orbits of several notable satellites on Earth.

Gradient classification [ edit ]

  • Tilt Orbit : Anorbit that is not tilted 0 degrees relative to the equatorial plane .
    • Polar Orbit : An orbit that stays above or almost above both poles of the planet during each rotation. Therefore, its inclination is 90 degrees (or very close).
    • Polar Solar Orbit : An approximately polar orbit that takes advantage of junctional advances in which a satellite passes through the local equator at the same time during each pass in this type of orbit . Effective for photography satellites because the shadows on each pass will be almost the same and also effective for solar observation satellites because they are located towards the sun continuously throughout the year.

Eccentricity classification [ edit ]

  • Circular Orbit : An orbit whose eccentricity is 0 and whose path marks a circle.
    • Hoham Transfer Orbit : A trip to the orbits of the two engine power around using a circular orbit, an orbit usually transferred to another orbit.
  • Elliptical Orbit : An orbit whose epicenter is greater than 0 and less than 1, and whose path marks an ellipse.
    • Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit : An elliptical orbit where the perigee is at the height of a low-altitude orbit (LEO) and the apogee is at the height of the geosynchronous orbit. Satellites use this orbit to orbit the Earth .
    • Geostationary transfer orbits : Geosynchronous transfer orbits that are used to transfer geostationary orbits.
    • Molniya Orbit : A very bizarre orbit with a slope of 63.4 এবং and a period of half a day (about 12 hours). Such satellites are often located in two designated regions of the planet (usually Russia and the United States).
    • Tundra Orbit : A very bizarre orbit with a slope of 63.4 এবং and a period of about the same number of days (about 24 hours). Such satellites are often located in a designated area of ​​the planet.

Synchronously classification [ edit ]

  • Synchronous orbit : An orbit where the orbit of a satellite is equal to the average rotation time of the object orbiting it (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds in Earth case) and the direction of rotation and the direction of rotation are equal. To any ground observer, such a satellite would generate an analema in the sky.
  • Semi-synchronous orbit : At an altitude of about 20,200 km (12,600 m) and orbiting the satellite, it is an orbit half the average rotation time of the object orbiting it (about 12 hours on Earth).
  • Geosynchronous Orbits : Earth's orbits are located at an altitude of 35.7 km (22,236 m). A geosynchronous orbit with a tendency to zero. This satellite will appear as a fixed point in the sky to the observer located on the ground.
    • Earth orbit : A geosynchronous orbit with zero inclination. To the observer on the ground, the satellite will be stationary at a certain point in the sky. [20]
    • Supersynchronous Orbit : A disposal / preservation orbit above GSO / GEO. In this orbit the satellites are transmitted westward. It is also synonymous with settlement orbit.
    • Subsynchronous Orbits : Orbits transmitted below GSO / GEO but to the east. The satellites flow east.
    • Cemetery orbits : Orbits located hundreds of kilometers above the geosynchronous orbit, where the satellites are removed at the end of their lifetime.
      • Disposal Orbit : Synonym of Cemetery Orbit .
      • Garbage orbit : Synonym of graveyard orbit.
  • Aerosynchronous Orbit :A synchronous orbit around Mars with a period of time equal to the length of the day around Mars, equal to 24.6229 hours.
  • Aerostationary orbit : A circular aerosynchronous orbit at an altitude of about 16,000 km (11,000 m) above the equatorial plane surface. To the ground observer, the satellite will be stationary at a certain point in the sky.
  • Heliosynchronous orbit : A solar-centric orbit where the orbit of a satellite is equal to the rotation period of the sun. These orbits occur slightly less than half the radius of Mercury's orbit, around the Sun at a radius of 24,360 grams (0.1628 AU).

Special classification [ edit ]

Pseudo-orbit classification [ edit ]

Upabyabastha [ edit ]

The functional versatility of a satellite lies in its technical components and its functional features. Looking at the "physiology" of a common satellite, two modules can be noticed. [16] Note that some of the novel's architectural concepts, such as fractional spacecraft, disturb this discipline somewhat.

Spacecraft bus or service module [ edit ]

The bus module consists of the following subsystems:

The structure [ edit ]

The structural subsystem provides the basic mechanical structure with sufficient rigidity that withstands the pressure and vibration felt during launch, maintains structural integrity and durability during position in orbit, and protects the satellite from extreme temperature changes and miniature meteors.

Telemetry [ edit ]

The remote measurement subsystem (Command and Data Handling, C&DH) manages the existing equipment, transmits effective information about the equipment to the control center on Earth, and receives command from the control center to adjust the equipment management.

Power [ edit ]

The power subsystem converts solar energy into electrical energy, control and distribution functions, and stores energy in batteries, which provide energy when satellites enter Earth's shadow. Nuclear power sources ( radioisotope thermoelectric generators ) have been used in several successful satellite programs, including the Nimbus program (1974-198) . [21]

Heat Control [ edit ]

Main article: Space heat control

The heat control subsystem helps to protect electrical equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or lack of sun exposure on the other side of the satellite.

Orbital motion and control [ edit ]

The gesture and orbit control subsystem includes sensors for measuring vehicle orientation, control laws and actuators (reaction wheels, thrusters) that are not attached to the flight software. These apply the torque and force needed to redirect the vehicle to the desired position, to keep the satellite in the correct orbit, and to direct the antenna in the right direction .

Contact [ edit ]

The second major module is the communication payload, which consists of a combination of transponders. The capabilities of a transponder are:

  • Receiving uplink radio signals from the ground satellite transmitting center (antenna).
  • Widening the received radio signals.
  • Sorting the input signals and directing the output signal through the input / output signal multiplexer to the correct downlink antenna for re-transmission to the earth's satellite receiving centers (antennas).

The end of life [ edit ]

When the satellites reach the end of their mission (this usually happens within 3 or 4 years of launch), satellite operators have the opportunity to either deactivate the satellite or leave it in its current orbit or move the satellite to the orbit of the cemetery. Historically very few satellites were designed to be orbited due to budget constraints at the beginning of the satellite mission. An example of such a satellite is Vanguard 1 . Launched in 1956, Vanguard 1 is the fourth artificial satellite to be placed in geostationary orbit, which was in orbit until March 2015 with the top layer of the launch rocket. [22] [23]

Instead of being orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a cemetery orbit. [24] Since 2002, the FCC has committed to launch a cemetery into orbit at the end of their working life before launching all terrestrial satellites . [25] The main regulators for uncontrolled orbits are the solar flux and the minor changes are the material and structure of the satellite and the gravitational chaos created by the sun and moon (as well as larger mountain ranges above or below sea level). During the fall, due to wind force and temperature, it separates in the range of 62 to 64 km, usually at an altitude of 6 km. However, the solar panels are destroyed before any other part at an altitude of 90 to 95 km.[26]

Countries to launch [ edit ]

Main article: Timeline of first orbital launch by country

The list includes countries with independent capabilities to launch satellites into orbit, including the production of the necessary launch vehicles. Note: Many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites, but they have to rely on foreign launch services to launch them. Those countries were not considered in this list. Only countries that are capable of launching satellites at their own discretion are listed here according to the first launch date. The list does not include the European Space Agency , a multinational or private entity.


The first country-based artificial satellite launched
Serial No.CountryDateRocket nameSatellite name
1 Soviet UnionOctober 4, 1956Sputnik-PS (Rocket)Sputnik-1
2 United StatesFebruary 1, 1956Juno-1Explorer-1
3 FranceNovember 26, 1975DiamondEast.Rix
4 Japan11 February 1980Lambda-4S (rocket)Osumi
5 ChinaApril 24, 1980Long March-1Dong Fang Hong-1
6 United KingdomOctober 26, 1971Black ArrowProspero X-3
7 IndiaJuly 16, 1970SLVRohini D1
8 Israel19 September 1986ShavitOFEC-1
- [1] RussiaJanuary 21, 1992Soyuz-UCosmos-2165
- [1] Ukraine13 July 1992Cyclone-3Strella
9 IranFebruary 2, 2009Safir-1Omid
10 North Korea12 December 2012Unha-3Kwangmyongjong Unit 2
11 South KoreaJanuary 30, 2013Naro-1STSAT-2C
12 Iran12 November 2018ElectronsCubsat

The first attempt to launch [ edit ]

  • The United States attempted to launch the first satellite using its own launcher in 1958 and successfully completed one launch in 1956.
  • Japan attempted to launch satellites four times in 1968-69 and succeeded in using its own launcher in 1970.
  • China attempted to launch its first satellite using its own launcher in 1979 and succeeded in 1980.
  • After launching the first national satellite using a foreign launcher in 1975, India tried to launch it using its own launcher in 1979 and succeeded in 1970.
  • Iraq claimed in 1969 to launch a warhead into orbit, but this claim was later rejected. [30]
  • After launching its first national satellite using a foreign launcher in 1975, Brazil made three attempts to launch a satellite using its own launcher VLS1 in 1998, 1999 and 2003, but all attempts failed.
  • North Korea claimed to have launched the Kwangmyongjong-1 and Kwangmyeongjong-2 satellites in 1996 and 2009, but US, Russian and other officials and weapons experts later said that if the rockets were sent to orbit, they failed to do so. The United States, Japan, and South Korea believe it was in fact a ballistic missile test, which was claimed after North Korea's 1996 satellite launch and was later rejected. [31] The first (April 2012) launch of Kwangmyongjong-3 failed, and it was publicly acknowledged by North Korea. However, in December 2012, the "second version" of Guangmiyongjong-3 was successfully launched, putting North Korea's first confirmed satellite into orbit.
  • South Korea ( Korea Aerospace Research Institute ) tried unsuccessfully to launch their own launcher, KSLV (Naro) -1 (built with Russian assistance) in 2009 and 2010 after launching the first national satellite using foreign launchers in 1992. Launched Naro-3 in 2013. Achieved success.
  • The first European multinational organization, the ELDO , attempted to launch the Europa 1 and Europa 2 rockets into orbit in 1981-1980 and 1981 , but failed.

Note [ edit ]

  • ^ RussiaandUkraine,the Soviet Union was part of the launch of their inherited powers, allowing them to achieve the ability to launch indigenously did. They are also at the top of the list due to the success of the Soviet Union.
  • France , the United Kingdom and Ukraine launched their first satellites from foreign space ports using their own launchers.
  • Several countries such as South Africa , Spain , Italy , Germany , Canada , Australia , Argentina , Egypt and OTRAG have developed their own launchers, but have not been able to launch them successfully.
  • Only the twelve countries listed below (Soviet Union, United States, France, Japan, China, United Kingdom, India, Russia, Ukraine, Israel, Iran and North Korea) and one regional organization ( European Space Agency , ESA) use their own regionally developed launchers. Has launched satellites independently.
  • Several other countries, including Brazil , Argentina , Pakistan , Romania , Taiwan , Indonesia , Australia , Malaysia , Turkey and Switzerland , are in various stages of developing their own small-scale launcher capabilities.

To launch private entity [ edit ]

The Orbital Sciences Corporation launched a satellite in 1990 via Pegasus. SpaceX launched a satellite in 2007 using Falcon 1 . Rocket Lab launched three cubesat orbits in 2016 using electrons .

The country's first satellite [ edit ]

Main article: Timeline of the first artificial satellite by country
  Orbital launch and satellite operation
  Satellite operation, launched by foreign suppliers
  Satellite development
 Orbital  launch project at advanced stage or deployment of domestic launch missiles

Although Canada is the third country to build a satellite into space, [32] it was launched from a US space airport using a US rocket . The same thing applies to Australia, where they launched the first satellite with the help of a US Redstone rocket and American aid workers, as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom . [33] The first Italian satellite, San Marco 1, was launched from Wallace Island ( Virginia , USA) on a U.S. Scout rocket on December 19, 1974, with an Italian launch team trained by NASA .

The first attempt to launch satellites [ edit ]

  • The United States tried unsuccessfully to launch their first satellite in 1958; They succeeded in 1957.
  • China tried unsuccessfully to launch the first satellite in 1979; They were successful in 1970.
  • Chile tried unsuccessfully in 1995 to launch their first satellite, Fasat-Alpha, using foreign rockets; They succeeded in 1998.
  • North Korea attempted to launch satellites in 1999, 2009, 2012; December 12, 2012 was the first success.
  • Libya has been developing its own national libsat satellite project since 1998 to re-launch suspended telecommunications and remote sensing services following the fall of Gaddafi . [34]
  • Belarus tried unsuccessfully in 2006 to launch the first satellite Belkya with a foreign rocket.

Both Chile and Belarus used Russian companies as the main contractors to build their satellites, they used Russian-Ukrainian rockets and launched from Russia or Kazakhstan.

The first satellite designed [ edit ]

  • Armenia founded Armaxmos in 2012 and announced the launch of the first telecommunications satellite, Armsat. About ২৫ 250 million has been invested and the country is selecting contractors between Russia, China and Canada to build the satellite in 4 years. [35] [36]

Attack satellites [ edit ]

Militant groups have been hacking satellites since the mid-2000s to disseminate their notifications and steal secret information from military communications networks. [36] [36]

Low-altitude orbital satellites have been destroyed by surface-to-air missiles for testing purposes. Russia , the United States , China and India have demonstrated their ability to destroy satellites. [39] When the Chinese military destroyed a former meteorological satellite in 2006 , [39] in February 2006 the US Navy destroyed a useless reconnaissance satellite. [40] On March 26, 2019, India destroyed a direct test satellite at an altitude of 300 km in 3 minutes with a missile. This made India the fourth country to have the ability to destroy satellites directly.[41] [42]

Jamming [ edit ]

Due to the low power signals received in satellite transmissions, they are at risk of being jammed by ground-based transmitters. The range of these national jamming transmitters is limited to geographical areas, [43] [44] but satellite phone and television signals are also being jammed.

Also, a bhusthira satellite carriers interfere with radio signals transferred to the satellite transponder is very easy to be valid. It is very common for a ground satellite to transmit commercial satellite space at the wrong time or to the wrong frequency and to double-illuminate the transponder, rendering the frequency useless. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring that enables them to identify the source of any carrier and effectively manage transponder space. [ Citation needed ]

Earth observation [ edit ]

Over the past five decades, space agencies have sent thousands of spacecraft, space capsules or satellites into the universe. In fact, weather forecasters predict weather and natural disasters based on observations of these satellites. [45]

US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) [47] National Academy of Space Observations at the National Academy; Requested the publication of a report in 2006 entitled The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievement. It described how the ability to see the whole earth at once through satellite observation revolutionized the study of the earth. This improvement brings about a new era of integrated science in the world. The National Academy report concludes that continued observation of the Earth from galaxies is necessary to solve future scientific and social barriers. [46]

NASA [ edit ]

NASA introduced the Earth Observing System (EOS), a combination of various satellites, scientific instruments and data systems, known as the Earth Observatory System Data and Information System (EOSDIS). [46] It disseminates numerous scientific data as well as services designed for interdisciplinary education. EOSDIS's data can be accessed online via File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS). [49] Scientists and researchers conduct EOSDIS science activities between multiple interconnected nodes or science investigator-led processing systems (SIPS) and disciplined distributed Active Storage Centers (DACCs) distribution platforms. [50]

ESA [ edit ]

The European Space Agency [51] has been operating Earth observation satellites since the launch of Metiosat 1 in November 1986. [52] ESA is currently planning to launch a satellite equipped with an artificial intelligence (AI) processor through which the spacecraft will decide to capture images and send data to Earth. [53] Brainsat will use Intel Myriad X Vision Processing Unit (VPU). In November 2016, ESA Director Joseph Askbaker announced the Earth Observation Program during FYWIC. [54] This is a five-day meeting focused on the future of Earth observation. The conference was held at the ESA Center for Earth Observation in Fresco, Italy. [53]ESA has launched Filelab, which refers to future-focused teams that work to harness the potential of AI and other disruptive innovations. [55] Meanwhile, the ESA has announced that it expects to launch a test flight of the Space Rider spacecraft in 2021. This will be after several exhibition missions. [56] Space Rider is a sequel to the agency's Intermediate Experimental Vehicle (IXV), launched in 2015. It has a 600kg payload capacity for orbital missions that will last a maximum of two months. [56]

Violence and overthrow [ edit ]

Main article: 2009 Satellite collision

On February 10, 2009, the US satellites Iridium 33 and Russia's Cosmos 2251 were hit. The incident took place 69 km above Siberia. NASA satellites, scientists told Mark myatani emaesaesabisi channels [58] , the first two of the satellites was before the conflict. [59]

Space black holes, neutron stars, photography, X-rays , etc., to find out the source of Germany's satellites in 1990 rosata who was sent into space. But due to gravity, it could hit any part of the world by October 22 or 23, 2011, according to the German space agency DLR . [60]

Pollution and Control [ edit ]

Liability is generally governed by the Convention on Liability. Despite the increase in issues such as space debris , radio and light pollution, there is a lack of progress in national or international control. [61] According to the astronomical community, such as the IAU, the growth of future satellites such as SpaceX 's Starlink will result in a massive increase in pollution in orbit. [72] [63] A report from the Satcon 1 workshop in 2020 noted that the effects of large satellites could severely affect some astronomical research efforts, and listed six ways to mitigate astronomical erosion. [64] [65]Some of the notable satellite failures that resulted in the release of contaminants and radioactive substances were Cosmos 954, Cosmos 1402, and Transit 5-BN-3. Wood can be used as an alternative material to reduce pollution and debris from re-entering satellites. [৬৬]

Open source satellite [ edit ]

Several open source satellites have been launched or are being developed using open source hardware and open source software . Satellites usually contain cubesat or pocketcube. An amateur radio satellite OSSI-1 was launched in 2013 and has been in orbit for about two months. [6] The UPSAT, created in 2016 by the Greek Patras University and the Libre Space Foundation, has been in orbit for 18 months. Fossat-1 was launched in 2019. [68] [69] [70] [71] 2021, according to the Portland State Aerospace Society of February oresyata are two open-source satellite satellites [7] [73]And the Libre Space Foundation also has a satellite project underway. [64] [65] [7]

Satellite service [ edit ]

See also [ edit ]

References [ edit ]

  1. ↑ "How many satellites are orbiting earth in 2018" . Pixalytics . August 22, 2018 . Date of collection 26 September 2018 .
  2. Top ↑ "NASA Spacecraft to Orbit a Dwarf Planet Becomes First" . NASA . March 7, 2015.
  3. Top ↑ "in Rockets in Science Fiction (the late 19th-Late in Century)" . Marshall Space Flight Center . Archived from the original on September 1, 2000 . Date of collection 21 November 2006 .
  4. Top ↑ Bleiler, in Everett to in Franklin; Bleiler, Richard (1991). Science-fiction, the Early YearsFree registration is required . Kent State University Press . Page  325 . ISBN  978-0-87338-416-2 .
  5. ↑ Rhodes, Richard (2000). Visions of Technology . Simon & Schuster . Page 160. ISBN  978-0-684-86311-5 .
  6. ↑ "Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship" . RAND . Date of collection 7 March 2006 .
  7. ↑ Rosenthal, Alfred (198). Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center . NASA. Page 15.
  8. Top ↑ "Hubble Essentials: About in Lyman Spitzer, Jr." . Hubble Site.
  9. ↑ RR Carhart, Scientific Uses for a Satellite Vehicle, Project RAND Research Memorandum. (Rand Corporation, Santa Monica) 12 February 1954.
  10. ↑ 2. HK Kallmann and WW Kellogg, Scientific Use of an Artificial Satellite, Project RAND Research Memorandum. (Rand Corporation, Santa Monica) 8 June 1955.
  11. Top ↑ in Gray to, in Tara; Garber, Steve (August 2, 2004). "A Brief History of Animals in Space" . NASA .
  12. ↑ Chang, Alicia (30 January 2007). "50th anniversary of first US satellite launch celebrated" . San Francisco Chronicle . Associated Press . Archived from the original on February 1, 2006 .
  13. Top ↑ in Portree, in David SF; Loftus, Jr, Joseph P. (1999). "Orbital Debris: A Chronology" (PDF) . Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . Page 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 1, 2000 . Date of collection 21 November 2006 .
  14. Top ↑ in Welch to, Rosanne; Lamphier, Peg A. (2019-02-22). Technical Innovation in American History: An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology [3 volumes] (in English). ABC-CLIO. Page 126. ISBN  978-1-61069-094-2 .
  15. Top ↑ "Orbital Debris Education the Package" (a PDF) . Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . Archived from the original (PDF) on April 7, 2006 . Date of collection 7 March 2006 .
  16. ↑ Jump to:A B Grant, A .; Meadows, J. (2004). Communication Technology UpdateFree registration is required(ninth edition). Focal Press . Page  284 . ISBN  978-0-240-80640-2 .
  17. Top ↑ "Workshop hashtag on the Use of Microsatellite Technologies is the"(a PDF) . United Nations . 2006 Page 6 . Date of collection 7 March 2006 .
  18. Top ↑ "in Earth Observations from press Space" (a PDF) . National Academy of Sciences . 2006 Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2008 .
  19. ↑ Jump to:A b "UCS Satellite Database" . Union of Concerned Scientists. ২0২0 on August 1 . Date of collection 15 October 2020 .
  20. ↑ Oberg, James (July 1984). "Pearl Harbor in Space" . Omni . Pages 42–44.
  21. Top ↑ Schmidt, in Saint George; Houts, Mike (18 February 2006). "Radioisotope-based Nuclear Power Strategy for Exploration Systems Development" (PDF) . STAIF Nuclear Symposium . 813 : 334–339. DOI : 10.1063 / 1.2169210 . Bibakoda : 2006AIPC813334S .
  22. Top ↑ "Vanguard 1 - the Satellite Information" . Satellite database . Heavens-Above . Date of collection 7 March 2015 .
  23. Top ↑ "Vanguard 1 Rocket - the Satellite Information" . Satellite database . Heavens-Above . Date of collection 7 March 2015 .
  24. Top ↑ "Conventional Disposal Method: Rockets and Graveyard Orbits" . Tethers.
  25. Top ↑ "The FCC Enters Debate Orbital Debris" . Space.com. Archivedfrom the original on July 24, 2009 .
  26. Top ↑ "SL-8 of the the Object to R / to B - 29659U - 06060B" . Forecast for Space Junk Reentry . Satview. March 11, 2014.
  27. Top ↑ "UNMOVIC report" (a PDF) . United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission. Page 434 ff.
  28. Top ↑ "Activities in Deception - Iraq Special Weapons" . FAS. Archivedfrom the original on 22 April 1999 .
  29. Top ↑ "LV in Al-Abid" .
  30. Top ↑ to The video tape of which a partial launch attempt was retrieved by UN weapons inspectors later surfaced showing that is obligatorily the rocket exploded prematurely, 45, seconds after its launch. [26] [26] [29]
  31. ↑ Myers, Steven Lee (15 September 1997). "US Calls North Korean Rocket a Failed Satellite" . The New York Times . Archived from the originalon 9 December 2017 . Date of collection 9 September 2019 .
  32. Les Burleson, Daphne (2005). Space Programs Outside the United States . McFarland & Company . Page 43. ISBN  978-0-7864-1852-7 .
  33. Top ↑ to Mike Gruntman (004). Blazing the Trail . American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics . Page 426. ISBN  978-1-56347-705-8 .
  34. ↑ Wissam Said Idrissi. "Libsat - Libyan Satellite Project" . libsat.ly .
  35. ↑ "Canada's MDA Ready to Help Armenia Launch First Comsat" . Asbarez News . 9 August 2013
  36. Top ↑ "keen hashtag on Armenian, satellite launch project in China" . arkaam .
  37. R Morrill, Dan. "Hack a Satellite while it is in orbit" . ITtoolbox . Archivedfrom the original on March 20, 2006 . Date of collection 25 March 2006 .
  38. Top ↑ "AsiaSat accuses Falungong of hacking satellite signals" . Press Trust of India . November 22, 2004
  39. ↑ Jump to:A B Broad, William J .; Sanger, David E. (17 January 2006). "China Tests Anti-Satellite Weapon, Unnerving US" . The New York Times .
  40. Top ↑ "Navy Missile Is Are Successful as the Satellite Spy Shot Down" . Popular Mechanics . 008 . Date of collection 25 March 2006 .
  41. Top ↑ "Delhi, India successfully tests anti-satellite weapon: Modi" . The Week (in English) . Date of collection 26 March 2019 .
  42. Top ↑ Diplomat, Harsh Vasani, to The. "India's Anti-Satellite Weapons" . The Diplomat (in English) . Date of collection 26 March 2019 .
  43. ↑ Singer, Jeremy (2003). "US-Led Forces Destroy GPS Jamming Systems in Iraq" . Space.com . Archived from the original on 26 May 2007 . Date of collection 25 March 2006 .
  44. Top ↑ Brewin, to Bob (003). "Homemade GPS jammers raise concerns" . Computerworld . Archived from the original on 22 April 2007 . Date of collection 25 March 2006 .
  45. ↑ "Earth Observations from Space" Earth Observations from Space " . Nas-sites.org (in English) . Date of collection 28 November 2018 .
  46. Top ↑ "Up Home | to The in National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and in Medicine | NationalAcademiesorg | Where the Nation Turns for Independent, Expert Advice" . www.nationalacademies.org . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  47. Top ↑ in Council, in National in Research (17 And December 008). Earth Observations from Space (in English). ISBN  978-0-309-11095-2 . DOI : 10.17226 / 11991 .
  48. Top ↑ "About EOSDIS | Earthdata" . earthdata.nasa.gov (in English) . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  49. Top ↑ "in Earth Observation Data | Earthdata" . earthdata.nasa.gov (in English) . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  50. Top ↑ "EOSDIS Distributed Active Archive Centers (DAACs) | Earthdata" . earthdata.nasa.gov (in English) . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  51. Top ↑ esa. "ESA" (in English). European Space Agency . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  52. Top ↑ "to 50 years of in Earth Observation" . ESA (in English) . Date of collection 21 August 2019 .
  53. ↑ Jump to:A b "ESA preps Earth observation satellite with onboard AI processor" . SpaceNews.com (in English). 13 November 2018 . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  54. Top ↑ "with the X VPU Movidius Myriad | for Intel Newsroom" . Intel Newsroom (in English) . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  55. Top ↑ "to The PH-week in the ESA in Earth Observation in Science and FutureEO the EO on the Open" . phiweek.esa.int (in English) . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  56. Top ↑ "in the ESA press Space Rider demo flight targets for 2021" . SpaceNews.com (in English). 13 November 2018 . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  57. Top ↑ esa. "IXV" (in English). European Space Agency . Date of collection 26 November 2018 .
  58. Top ↑ "an MSN | in Outlook, Office, Skype, in Bing, Breaking News, and Latest Videos" . www.msn.com . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  59. Nas "Nasa alert as Russian and US communication satellites collide over Siberia" . the Guardian (in English). 2009-02-12 . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  60. ↑ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Artificial satellite suddenly falling from space | DW | 24.10.2011" . DW.COM . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  61. Top ↑ "Weltraumschrott Problem: To Die kosmische Mullkippe -Wissenschaft" . The Spiegel . Date of collection 22 April 2018 .
  62. Top ↑ "s IAU statement hashtag on satellite constellations" . International Astronomical Union . Date of collection 3 June 2019 .
  63. Top ↑ "Light pollution will get worse from satellites. But how much?" . astronomy.com . 14 June 2019.
  64. ↑ Zhang, Emily. "SpaceX's Dark Satellites Are Still Too Bright for Astronomers" . Scientific American (in English) . Date of collection 18 September 2020 .
  65. Top ↑ "Report Offers Roadmap to Mitigate Effects of Large hashtag on the Satellite Constellations Astronomy | is American Astronomical Society" . aas.org . Date of collection 18 September 2020 .
  66. ↑ Harper, Justin (29 December 2020). "Japan developing wooden satellites to cut space junk" . bbccouk . Date of collection 29 December 2020 .
  67. Top ↑ "ossicode - Overview" . GitHub (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  68. ↑ Kulu, Erik. "FossaSat-1 @ Nanosats Database" . Nanosats Database(in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  69. Top ↑ "FossaSat 1, 1b" . Gunter's Space Page (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  70. Top ↑ "FossaSat-1, an on the Open Source, and the Satellite for the in Internet of Things" . Hackster.io (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  71. Top ↑ "FOSSASystems / FOSSASAT-1" . 2021-02-24.
  72. Top ↑ "oresat" . www.oresat.org (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  73. Top ↑ "the Satellite in Small Project in Oregon" . GitHub (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  74. Top ↑ "PocketQubes" . Libre Space Foundation (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  75. Top ↑ "QUBIK" . Libre Space Foundation (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .
  76. Top ↑ "Qubik" . GitLab (in English) . Date of collection 2021-02-28 .

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